3-Methyl-2-oxovaleric acid is an abnormal metabolite that arises from the incomplete breakdown of branched-chain amino acids. 3-Methyl-2-oxovaleric acid is a neurotoxin an acidogen and a metabotoxin. A neurotoxin causes damage to nerve cells and nerve tissues.

Malic acid is a tart-tasting organic dicarboxylic acid that plays a role in many sour or tart foods. Apples contain malic acid which contributes to the sourness of a green apple. Malic acid can make a wine taste tart although the amount decreases with increasing fruit ripeness.

Phosphorylcholine is widely present in the biological world, which is a phospholipid present in the eukaryotic biofilm, and also in the symbiotic bacteria or pathogens associated with eukaryotes.